We Should End War in Middle East Essay Example for Free

We Should End War in Middle East Essay â€Å"American soldiers killed in attack. † This is the latest headline out of Iraq, yet stories like these are all too common, even while the armed forces do their best to censor the reality of the war from reaching the home front. The brutal realities of the war in Iraq cannot be sufficiently censored to prevent Americans from finding out the horrible toll our soldiers pay each day, losing their humanity by killing and losing their minds by having to see their friends’ arms or legs blown off. The American public has finally started to voice its opposition to the protracted war in Iraq, as recent polls and presidential approval ratings show that the public is increasingly upset with the direction the war has taken, even though support for the troops continues to remain high. As it stands, opposition to the war also continues to grow and the polarization that marked the early days of the war is diminishing, as citizens, politicians, members of the armed forces, and even those in the Bush administration are realizing the errant decisions that led to and sustained the war have cost far too muchin billions of taxpayers’ dollars, international economic and political status, and most importantly the lives of tens thousands of Americans and many more Iraqis. Few issues have polarized the political community and general population in the United States as the sustained war in Iraq. While most of the country agreed that invading Afghanistan was necessary to combat terrorism, the decision to invade Iraq was met with mixed feelings at best. At the time, the Bush administration used everything in its power to convince the American public and the world of the righteousness in attacking Iraq. The many reasons, with varying degrees of honesty and accuracy, ranged from the threat of weapons of mass destruction to Iraq’s participation in terrorism to the plain fact that Saddam Hussein was a bad man. Unfortunately, many Americans who would normally be in the middle of the road on such issues were blinded by the administration’s continued propaganda about having to support a president during wartime, regardless of the terrible decisions or unexplained actions he takes, and many also believed that Iraq was involved in the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. A Washington Post poll of 1,003 adults taken in August of 2003 found that nearly 70% of Americans polled believed that Saddam Hussein was personally involved in Al Qeada’s attacks on the United States; a Time/CNN poll conducted around the same time found Americans more closely split on whether the military action in Iraq was worth the price in America lives, taxpayer dollars and other costs — 49% said yes, 43% no and 8% were unsure (â€Å"Poll: 70% Believe Saddam, 9-11 Link†). With its aims justified in the eyes of the misinformed American public, in March of 2003 the Bush administration got its wish to expand the war in the Middle East to include Iraq. This initial invasion was a showcase for the massive military industrial complex that provided scores of new technological advances in recent years designed to maximize death. Memorable images from the invasion include the â€Å"shock and awe† campaign of large bombs and missiles tearing up Baghdad, the famous toppling of the Saddam Hussein statue by Iraqi civilians, and President George Bush landing in a fighter jet upon an aircraft carrier, only to give a speech in front of a large banner that read â€Å"Mission Accomplished! † The tragically comedic irony of that banner can only be understood in hindsight, and only by those fortunate enough not to have been in Iraq. Over four years later, the mission has not been accomplished, unless the mission was to create the highest possible revenues for international oil companies at the expense of young American lives. Additionally, the Bush administration’s decision to invade Iraq eroded much of the international good will created by the September 11 attacks. Many countries that supported the U. S. invasion of Afghanistan see the invasion of Iraq as unnecessary and nothing more than the act of a bully, the world’s lone superpower. However, most Americans chose to dismiss the loud opinions of the international community as being shortsighted and not relatable. The economic impact of the war in Iraq is felt by all Americans each time they pump gas. In the four years since the U. S. invaded Iraq, Iraqi oilfields and associated infrastructure have sustained 400 attacks, and oil production in the country has fallen from 1. 95 barrels per day during the first quarter of 2007, short of the U. S. goal of 2. 5 million barrels per day and the previous mark of 3. 7 million under Saddam Hussein (Miller). It is also highly reported in the media and amongst citizens that companies like Haliburton, associated with Vice President Dick Cheney, have benefited immensely from the reconstruction contracts in Iraq, leading many to believe that the war is solely for oil. The fact that oil companies are now making record profits seem to reinforce these ideas. But, another consequence of U. S. action in Iraq is that the dollar is losing its international value. The dollar has weakened against the euro, gold, copper, and other assets, and when Bush came in to office, a dollar equated to . 987 euros while now it is at . 5 (Miller). While oil gets more expensive, the dollar weakens, in large part due America’s overwhelming dependence on it and the massive expenditures of oil, resources, and money on the war in Iraq. The business side of the war in Iraq seems to have little benefit for common Americans, who are really the ones paying the most for it in terms of dollars. Top economists estimate that the total costs for the war will exceed $2 trillion. The Bush administration predicted in 2002 that the war would cost between $100 billion and $200 billion, but according to a 2006 study by Nobel Prize winning economist Joseph E.  Stiglitz and Harvard lecturer Linda Bilmes, after factoring in long-term healthcare for wounded US veterans, rebuilding a worn-down military, and accounting for other unforeseen bills and economic losses, the total could reach far above the $700 million it has so far cost for the war effort alone (Bender). With so many domestic issues requiring effort and money to rectify, this extended war does little to provide health care for the millions of Americans without it, or maintain the country’s infrastructure. A former economic advisor to President Bill Clinton, Stiglitz based the study on past conflicts, the current war’s impact on the ballooning federal deficit, its ripple effects on overall economic growth and investment, and losses in productivity (Bender). The increasing economic costs, combined with the economic downturn experienced during Bush’s time in office is borderline catastrophic, but actually compares little to the greatest cost of the war, which is the cost of human lives. As this speech is being written, the war has cost a total of 4,000 U. S. oldiers’ lives according to the latest body counts, and the violence continues to not on maintain its horrible pace, but even shows signs of increasing, as daily reports of not only American casualties but Iraqi civilian casualties roll in. In the same report the daily violence against civilians included a suicide truck bomber in the Sulaiman Bek city hall, a predominantly Sunni area of northern Iraq, which killed at least 16 people and wounded 67; add to this at least 21 other Iraqis that were killed or found dead in attacks nationwide and life in the U. S. -occupied country becomes more apparent (Gamel). While it is impossible to say that Iraq was a peaceful country under the regime of Saddam Hussein, it is easy to say that it is not at all peaceful under the regime of George W. Bush. This has led to a negative view of the United States by many of the Iraqi that are supposed to be helped. According to Iraqi author, Abdul Hadi al-Khalili, who was kidnapped in broad daylight by gunmen and forced to pay $30,000 to be released, this is a product of American occupation: â€Å"Crimes like carjacking, murder, and kidnapping were nearly unheard of during the years of Saddam’s repressive police state. The United States successfully dismantled Saddam’s government but completely failed to bring a sense of law and order to the nation of Iraq† (Al-Marashi and Hadi al-Khalili). It is apparent that the war in Iraq is bad for Americans, Iraqis, and creates a world in which countries are afraid of what the next unilateral action of the U. S. will be. An invasion of Iran, perhaps? There has been discussion along these lines, but one can only hope common sense prevails over fantastical dreams of hawks in the government. One of the quietest statistics from the war is the number of servicemen and women wounded in action. Because the armed forces keep such firm control on media and personal reports by the soldiers, the American public is largely unaware of the sheer numbers of soldiers that come back from Iraq gravely wounded. According to the latest reports by the Department of Defense, the total U. S.  Iraq War casualties stand at over 56,000; this figure includes the nearly 28,000 wounded by hostile action and almost double that amount for soldiers who were evacuated for illness and non-hostile action, a blanket description that also includes soldiers who commit suicide (White). The thing that differentiates the war in Iraq from previous wars is that the fatality rate is misleading and the casualty rate is significantly higher than Vietnam and Korea, which experienced fewer than three people wounded for every death, and the World Wars, in which there were less than two (Bilmes). Some of this can be attributed to better medical technology and the use of body armor, but the overall theme is that there are and will continue to be a large amount of wounded veterans, both physically and psychologically, coming back to the United States needing treatment on an already grossly understaffed and under-funded Veteran Affairs administration. So far, more than 200,000 veterans from Iraq and Afghanistan have been treated at VA medical facilities — three times what the VA projected, according to a Government Accountability Office analysis; of these veterans, more than a third have been diagnosed with mental health conditions, and thousands more have crippling disabilities such as brain and spinal injuries (Bilmes). The Veterans Benefits Administration has 400,000 pending claims, some which will never be honored, and of the 1. million service members involved in the war from the beginning, 900,000 are still on active duty, which will only lead to greater problems when their time is up (Bilmes). The conservative estimate of the price wounded veterans will cost the U. S. taxpayers in between $300 billion and $600 billion, not to mention the price the veterans themselves have already paid. No matter what the reasons for fighting the war in Iraq may be it is apparent that those who fought it and those who paid for it will continue to pay for years to come. There is little to suggest that the war in Iraq is justifiable or will have a positive outcome. It has created ill-will towards America from the rest of the world that may last for generations; it has killed possibly hundreds of thousands of humans, and maimed many more; it has left a country in complete shambles with little hope to pull out of it anytime soon; and, it will end up costing far more than it is worth in time, money, and lives. As Americans continue to learn the truths about Iraq and the administration that led us there, it will continue to oppose the poor decisions. As the elections of 2006 showed, Americans are ready for a change. The only thing that remains to be seen is if the American public is ready to initiate that change or blindly maintain the status quo. Their decision is more important than they could ever realize.

School Based Management And School Changes Education Essay

School Based Management And School Changes Education Essay Abstract For more than three decades, School-Based Management (SBM) has become a global movement towards the quality of education. The ultimate goal of implementing SBM was to enhance quality of education in general and more particularly for better school improvement and increased student achievement. This article addresses the views of school stakeholders in exploring the association between SBM policy and school changes. The paper is on the basis of mixed-methods research design, combining quantitative and qualitative dimensions of research. The quantitative research design was applied through an empirical survey between February and June 2012, involving 318 respondents from 18 urban and sub-urban schools of Ngada, Flores, Indonesia. In addition to the survey, personal in-depth interviews and focus group discussions were conducted, followed by documentary analyses. Keywords School-based management, school changes, Indonesia, Flores Introduction For more than three decades, School-Based Management (SBM) has become a global movement towards the quality of education. The ultimate goal of implementing SBM was to enhance quality of education in general and more particularly for better school improvements and student achievements. Research in the last twenty years affirm how SBM policy and programs have been evident to be effective for the improvement of schools and student learning outcomes (Bandur Gamage, 2009; Bergman, 1992; Brown Cooper, 2000; Caldwell, 2005; Dempster, 2000; Gamage, 2006, 1998; Kuehn, 1996; Odden Wohlstetter, 1995; ONeil, 1995; Sharpe, 1996). Several studies have also consistently revealed a positive association between higher parental and/or community involvement and improved student achievement resulting from implementing effective SBM (Blank, 2004; Gamage, 1994; Sheldon Voorhis, 2004; Williams, Harold, Robertson, Southworth, 1997). For instance, on the basis of research conducted in the Victorian state schools system, involving 75 interviews, Gamage (1998: 313) found that healthier teaching and learning environments as well as improvement of student achievement could be achieved by the fact that the parents and teachers who are the closest to the students have formed a partnership and both parties are represented in the governing body with accountability. Similarly, Sheldon and Voorhis (2004: 127) affirm that many researchers have supported the idea of how community and parental involvement can improve schools and the quality of education that the children achieved as well as the academic achievement of students. Several researchers also found how school-based management is associated with partnership in school decision-makings (Bandur, 2012; Blank, 2004; Gamage, 1998). For instance, Blank (2004: 62) asserts that schools can promote improvements in student learning by building relationships between schools and diverse community entities. He then clarifies that building partnerships that link school, family, and community is intimately connected to student achievement because linking schools and community resources leads to providing services and support that address various needs of the students. Partnership can also provide learning opportunities that enhance young peoples social, emotional, and physical development as well as academic skills. School changes in this article are related to: (1) how SBM policy has changed the absolute authority figure of school principals for school decision-makings; (2) how SBM policy encourage higher participation of parents and other school communities in schools; (3) how SBM policy change the fashion of financial management in schools; (4) how SBM policy create partnership in decision-making processes; and (5) how SBM has led to better teaching and learning environments. In the study, the general research questions were formulated as what are the results of implementing SBM policies and programs in schools as perceived by the school stakeholders? What is School-Based Management? School-Based Management (SBM) is a generic term in a response to change the centralistic and bureaucratic fashions of public school system toward more decentralized and democratic model. The term was born in mid-1960s in Australia after a public debate at the Australian National University, Canberra to choose a model of public school system that serve better students. Under the SBM scheme, power and authority in decision-making are shifted from governments to individual schools for better school improvement and increased student achievement. Later, the reform has appeared worldwide under various terms site-based management, site-based decision making, school-based decision making, school-based governance, shared decision making, and even school-based initiatives. However, even though these terms represent the widespread education reform agenda, they vary slightly in meaning, particularly to the extent whether authority and responsibility are devolved to school councils or whether th e councils are mandatory or not by laws and regulations. In this sense, similar to the SBM reforms in Chicago, USA and Victoria, Australia, Indonesian SBM model is mandatory, which means that all Indonesian public schools are compulsorily implementing SBM policy and programs on the basis of Law 20/2003 on National Education System and Government Regulation No.66/2010. Based on research conducted in Victoria, the ACT and NSW, and other countries, Gamage (1996: 65) defines SBM as a pragmatic approach to a formal alteration of the bureaucratic model of school administration with a more democratic structure. It identifies the individual school as the primary unit of improvement relying on the redistribution of decision-making authority through which improvements in a school are stimulated and sustained. In this context, the focus on facilitating improvements in the individual school as the key to successful educational reform strategies has a good deal of public appeal and other research support (Gamage Zajda, 2005; Gamage, 2003; Whitty, Power Halpin, 1998; Cheng, 1996; Odden Wohlstetter, 1995). Marburger (1991: 25-26) considers SBM as an approach in which decisions that are traditionally made by a superintendent are now being made by the school council comprising of the principal, teachers, parents, citizens, and the students. Likewise, Anderson (2006: 223) defines SBM as the shifting of decision-making authority from the district office to individual schools. Many scholars also affirm that the movement towards SBM is often assumed as the approach to serve students better by improving the school practices in meeting the diverse expectations of the stakeholders in a changing environment towards increasing student performance and achievements (Cheng Mok, 2007; Anderson, 2006; Caldwell, 2005; Gamage Zajda, 2005; Gamage Sooksomchitra, 2004; Muijs and Harris, et. al, 2004; Sheldon Voorhis, 2004; Blank, 2004; Gamage, 1998, 1994). Gamage (1996: 21-22) has proposed a revised theory of SBM based on twenty years of experience in the Australian SBM systems. In the revised theory, he has devised seven assumptions, on which to base a more realistic application of SBM. The first assumption is that a school council shall consist of all relevant stakeholders such as the principal or the head teacher and the representatives of staff (both teaching and non-teaching), parents, local community, and in the case of secondary schools, students. The representatives of the staff, parents, and students are expected to be elected by the relevant constituencies, whereas the community representatives are to be nominated by the other elected members and the school leader. The second assumption is that the devolution or transfer of both authority and responsibility needs to be affected by a legislative enactment. This approach will transform the former advisory body to a democratic governing body. The third assumption is the heavy reliance on the voluntary participation of the parents, community, and student representatives in the process of policy formulation in governing the school. It is believed that the school stakeholders are motivated and dedicated to developing quality schools because of the genuine transfer of authority and responsibility. The fourth assumption is that the lay councilors, with appropriate induction and training, will acquire sufficient knowledge to function as equal partners. The knowledge and experience of the lay-members who come from fields other than education are relevant and useful to the educational enterprise in order that the needs of contemporary schools are met. The fifth assumption is that because of de-zoning, the schools need to function in an interesting and effective mode that can improve the image of the school in a similar way to the business reputation of a private/public enterprise. Such an image will help attract high levels of school enrolments. The sixth assumption is that SBM would be cost effective because the ownership of the policies and higher levels of commitment leads to minimization of costs and better utilization of limited resources. More resources would also be available as a result of minimizing the size of the educational bureaucracy, as well as drawing on previously untapped resources from the school community. The last assumption is that stricter control needs to be enforced by the centre to ensure accountability for the finances placed at the disposal of the school in conformity with the Ministerial/Departmental Guidelines relating to the operation of school councils. The principal is made accountable to the governing body and through it to the states education authorities, as well as to the school community. Submissions of regular progress reports to the governing body and annual reports to other relevant authorities and the school community are required. Decentralization and SBM in Indonesia Prior to the implementation of School-Based Management (SBM) in Indonesia, its system of education was highly centralized. Bjork (2003: 193) affirms that by the end of the twentieth century, Indonesia was among the most highly centralized nations in the world. However, the real transformation with the concept of decentralization commenced in May 1998, when there was a radical political movement towards decentralization (Aspinall Fealy, 2003; Bangay, 2005; Bjork, 2006; Guess, 2005; Raihani, 2007). In terms of successful movements towards decentralization, Guess (2005: 220) claims that the Indonesian big bang devolution program has been described as one of the fastest and most comprehensive decentralization initiatives ever attempted by any country in the region. The decentralized system led to the implementation of educational decentralization through School-Based Management (SBM) which has been considered as a milestone in developing a better quality of national education (Departemen Pendidikan Nasional, 2004, 2002). For these reasons, on the basis of Law No.25/2000 on National Development Planning (2000-2004), the Indonesian Ministry of National Education, appointed a Komisi Nasional Pendidikan (KNP) or Commission of National Education in February 2001. The KNP worked until December 2001 with responsibilities, among others, to: (1) formulate policy recommendations to have a better quality education; (2) provide inputs to government about educational decentralization. It was expected that the work of this Commission would become a basis from which to comprehensively reform Indonesian education. One of the recommendations of the KNP was to develop educational councils at district level and school councils at school level. Thus, developing educational and school councils was one of the educational decentralization policies, aimed at devolving power and authority from central government to schools, resulting in improvement of democratic principles, community participation, equity, as well as accommodation of diverse local interests and needs (Departemen Pendidikan Nasional, 2001: 26). It was believed that local communities are the ones who will understand their own problems and needs better and decided to provide them greater roles and responsibilities in terms of operational decision making on national education policies. For this purpose, the central government embarked on the formation of education councils and school councils in each district of Western Sumatera, Bali, and Eastern Java. On the basis of these trials, the councils were considered strategic in coping with improving the Indonesian national education. Then, Government issued a set of guidelines in relation to the implementation of SBM in 2002 and later revised in 2004 in order to provide mandatory corporate governing body type school councils described as follows: This concrete one-sidedness requires to be channeled politically to become collective action placed by Educational Council located in the district/city and School Council at the level of educational unit (Departemen Pendidikan Nasional, 2002: 1). Further, the Education Act 20/2003 on National Education System strengthened the formation of school councils. In accordance with the involvement of local communities in achieving better quality education, Article 56 of the Act provides that the community members are required to participate in improving the quality of education. In this case, the educational council and school council represent the community, as stated: Community shall take part in the quality improvement of educational services, which include planning, monitoring, and evaluation of educational programs through the Educational Council and School Council (Education Act 20/2003, Article, 56). The Act defines a school council as an independent body established to provide advice, directions and support for personnel, facilities and equipment, and monitoring of a school (Article 56). On the basis of the Act, Government regulated power and authority vested in the school councils, as well as characteristics and formation, membership and structure of a school council. It is clear that authority is devolved to school councils and the councils are empowered to create better quality education in their schools. How SBM Change Schools Currently, SBM has been evident to be effective for the improvement of schools and student learning outcomes (Bandur Gamage, 2009; Bergman, 1992; Brown Cooper, 2000; Caldwell, 2005; Dempster, 2000; Gamage, 2006, 1998; Kuehn, 1996; Odden Wohlstetter, 1995; ONeil, 1995; Sharpe, 1996). More particularly, Odden and Wohlstetter (1995: 32) identified the conditions that promote improved school performance through SBM. They discovered that school stakeholders in the schools in which SBM has been effectively implemented to improve school performance have the authority over budget, personnel, and curriculum. These successful schools implementing SBM have used their new power and authority to introduce changes that directly affect teaching and learning practices. They also found other conditions, including (1) professional development and training opportunities to strengthen teaching, management, and problem-solving skills of teachers and other stakeholders; (2) adequate information to make informed decisions about student performance, parent and community satisfaction, and school resources; and (3) systematic and creative in communicating with parents and the community. Several studies have also consistently revealed a positive association between higher parental and/or community involvement and improved student achievements resulting from implementing effective SBM (Blank, 2004; Gamage, 1994; Sheldon Voorhis, 2004; Williams, Harold, Robertson, Southworth, 1997). For instance, on the basis of research conducted in the Victorian state schools system, involving 75 interviews, Gamage (1998: 313) reports that healthier teaching and learning environments as well as improvements of student achievements could be achieved by the fact that the parents and teachers who are the closest to the students have formed a partnership and both parties are represented in the governing body with accountability. Similarly, Sheldon and Voorhis (2004: 127) affirm that many researchers have supported the idea of how community and parental involvement can improve schools and the quality of education that the children achieved as well as the academic achievements of student s. Several researchers also found how school-based management is associated with partnership (Bandur, 2012; Blank, 2004; Gamage, 1998). For instance, Blank (2004: 62) asserts that schools can promote improvements in student learning by building relationships between schools and diverse community entities. He then clarifies that building partnerships that link school, family, and community is intimately connected to student achievements because linking schools and community resources leads to providing services and support that address various needs of the students. Partnership can also provide learning opportunities that enhance young peoples social, emotional, and physical development as well as academic skills. Research Design and Methods The research design employed in this study was the mixed-methods design. The design has advantages to attain valid and reliable research outcomes as well as to provide specific techniques and strategies by which the researchers are guided in data collection procedures and data analyses (Creswell, 2005; Creswell Clark, 2007). More particularly, this study employed the concurrent triangulation strategy, which primarily aims at using separate quantitative and qualitative research as a means to offset the weaknesses inherent within one method with the strengths of the other method. In this context, the quantitative and qualitative data collection is concurrent, happening in one phase of the research study. The strategy integrates the results of the two methods during the interpretation phase. In the data collection phase of this study, the empirical survey was conducted concurrently with in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, and documentary analyses. As the primary goal of condu cting interviews was to seek clarifications and deeper understanding on the issues emerged in the empirical surveys, the results of quantitative data analysis and qualitative data analysis were combined. Research method is more specific than research design. Research methods are techniques of data collection and analysis, such as a quantitative standardized instrument or a qualitative theme analysis of text data (Creswell, 2005; Creswell Clark, 2007). In this study, the term mixed-methods research means to the research design which has philosophical assumptions to guide the direction of the data collection and analyses. As methods of inquiry, it focuses on collecting, analyzing, and mixing both quantitative and qualitative data in a single study. For the purpose of quantitative data collection, questionnaire was employed for obtaining close items and scale items related to the objectives of the study. The close items allow the respondents to choose from two or more fixed alternatives, for example, the dichotomous items which provide two alternatives only: yes or no, while the scale is a set of items to which the respondents respond by indicating degrees of agreement or disagreement (Burns, 1994, p. 349). The questionnaire of the study consisted of two major parts. The first main part is about the demographic information of respondents for the purposes of providing descriptive statistics, including: school location, gender of respondents, ages of respondents and their position in schools. The second part is about respondents perspective on the results of implementing School-Based Management (SBM) policy and programs; general functions of communication in schools; the importance of communication for school improvements and student achievements; communication networks in schools; and styles and strategies of communication of school leaders within the SBM framework. For the purposes of qualitative data collection, in-depth interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs) were used to obtain open-ended information. These techniques of data collection were useful for providing better insight of the research problems. For this reason, the researcher the researcher set up two major steps. The first step dealt wit selected the key informants. Accordingly, fourteen key informants (principals and school council presidents) in seven schools were interviewed personally face to face. In addition, FGDs with seven groups of teachers in the schools were conducted. All interviews were recorded in the digital-tape recording and note-books for checking validity and reliability. Validity and Reliability of the Item Scales Several statisticians (Brace, Kemp, Snelgar, 2006; Manning Munro, 2006) affirm that the Principal Component Analysis (PCA) is a type of Factor Analysis which is used to explore the possibility of a factor structure underlying the variables. In particular, Manning and Munro (2006) explain the usefulness of PCA to measure the validity of variables. In the context of quantitative research, validity is simply defined as the degree to which it measures what it claims to measure (Manning Munro, 2006; Wiersma Jurs, 2005; Pallant, 2005; Best Kahn, 1998). The results of Principal Component Analysis demonstrate that the factor loadings of all scale items were ranged from .72 to .97 and the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) of Sampling Adequacy was statistically significant (Bartletts Test of Sphericity, p = .000) and ranged from .64 to .87. These results clearly indicate a good factorability (Brace, Kemp, Snelgar, 2006, p. 318). Reliability in quantitative research refers to the consistency of the methods, conditions, and results (Manning Munro, 2006; Wiersma Kurs, 2005; Pallant, 2005; Best Kahn, 1998). There are three common ways of testing reliability in quantitative research, namely, test-retest reliability, split-half reliability, and coefficient (Munning Munro, 2006; Pallant, 2005). The test-retest approach is applied when a researcher tests the same set of people on two different occasions and the scores from the first test is correlated with the scores from the second test. In the split-half reliability, a researcher administers questionnaires only once and split the items used to create composite variable into two equivalent halves, followed by creating two composite variables from these two sets and correlate them. For the purpose of this study, the coefficient alpha (also known as Cronbachs alpha) was applied. The values of coefficient alpha above .70 are considered to represent acceptable reliability, above .80 good reliability, and above .90 to represent excellent reliability. The values of coefficient alpha of this instrument ranged from .82 to .95, indicating good and excellent reliability (Manning Munro, 2006, p.25). Results and Discussions Demographic Information In the study, several variables in relation to demographic information were analyzed for providing the general background of respondents. These include location, genders, qualification of formal education, positions in schools, and ages of respondents. The majority of respondents (57%) were located in district town schools of Ngada, while 43% of them were from village schools located in Golewa Sub-district area. Then, the majority of respondents (53%) were male, while 47% of them were female. Meanwhile, most of respondents (39%) graduated from bachelor degrees, while 36% of them graduated from diploma educational institutions. Meanwhile, 25% of respondents had the high school teacher training education or senior high school. The biggest percentage (38%) of respondents in the empirical survey was parents, followed by teachers and school council members (26% and 24% respectively). Other respondents were administrative staff (9%) and principals in seven schools (2%). Most of the respondents (40%, N=318) were between 41 and 50 years old. Twenty-six of them were between 31 and 40 years old, while small percentages of respondents were between 51-60 and 20-30 years old (20% and 14% respectively). Opinion on the Current Practice of SBM Policy In Indonesia, the policy in decentralized education system through School-Based Management (SBM) was actually the initiatives made by the Central government in Jakarta. Fortunately, the initiative was strongly supported by international donor agencies. In Flores, Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID) provided assistance for school stakeholders in the areas of SBM policies and programs, including the devolution of authority and responsibility from governments to school councils in terms of building new schools, building renovation, library, school text books, school curriculum, school development planning, monitoring anf evaluation, school operational grants, as well as how joyful teaching and learning is linked to active participation of the whole school community members. An analysis was made in this study to find out the overall impression of school stakeholders on the current implementation of SBM policies and programs. As shown in Table 1, all respondents in th e empirical survey perceived the implementation of School-Based Management (SBM) either adequate (5%), good (46%) or excellent (48%). This implies that SBM policies and programs in these schools were applicable. Table 1 Opinion on the current practice of SBM Valid Item Frequency Valid Percent Unsatisfactory Adequate Good Excellent 0 17 147 154 0 5.3 46.2 48.4 Total 318 100.0 An effort was also made to find out whether there was statistically significant difference in terms of the school stakeholders opinion in terms of the implementation of SBM. As presented in Table 2, there was no statistically significant difference (Chi-sq =59, N = 318, p = .74) with the 96% of respondents who are working in schools (teachers, administrative staff and school principals) who either stated good or excellent on the implementation of SBM, compared with 94% of respondents (school council members and parents) who stated the same. Table 2 Opinion on the implementation of SBM by position of respondents in school NewPosition * Opinion on the Implementation of SBM Crosstabulation Opinion on the Implementation of SBM Total Adequate Good Excellent New Position 1* Count 5 56 60 121 % within NewPosition 4.1% 46.3% 49.6% 100.0% 2** Count 12 91 94 197 % within NewPosition 6.1% 46.2% 47.7% 100.0% Total Count 17 147 154 318 % within NewPosition 5.3% 46.2% 48.4% 100.0% * = Teacher, administrative staff, principal ** = School council members and parents Chi-Square Tests Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided) Pearson Chi-Square .593a 2 .744 Likelihood Ratio .612 2 .736 Linear-by-Linear Association .311 1 .577 N of Valid Cases 318 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 6.47. How SBM Change the Authority on School Decision-Makings Since the implementation of SBM, authority in decision-making is vested from governments to school level decision-makers. For this purpose, each Indonesian school has established school councils for decision-making processes. In this research, it was necessary to find out how the school stakeholders considered the authority in decision-making after the implementation of SBM. Table 3 SBM and decision-making authority in school Valid Item Frequency Valid Percent Disagree Agree Strongly Agree 18 166 134 5.7 52.2 42.1 Total 318 100.0 Table 3 shows that the vast majority (94%) of respondents in the empirical survey either agreed (52%) or strongly agreed with the statement: School-Based Management has resulted in the provision of wider authority in school for decision-making. This result implies that as perceived by the respondents, authority for decision-making has been vested in school level since the implementation of SBM. In the history of Indonesian education system prior to the implementation of SBM, school principals were the authority figures in school decision-makings. They worked very closely to the district government officials in relation to the arrangements of new school buildings, school renovation, and even school textbooks for children. In such a practice, parents and other school community members never involved in decision-making processes. These practices were in line with Education Law No.2/1989 on National Education System and Government Regulation No.28/1990. It was regulated that central government has the authority in regard with curriculum, textbooks, school facilities, deployment, and development of staff, while authority in relation to new school buildings and renovations are in the hands of district governments (Article 9, Government Regulation 28/1990). In contrast, under SBM scheme, authority in these areas is not solely vested in school principal, but to the school councils. This requires principals to distribute the authority to school council members. The central government decided on the structure and composition of the councils to represent school communities. However, each school itself was given the authority to decide the size of the council based on their school size. Thus, each school has to elect a school council with a minimum of nine members depending on the size of the school. The membership of a school council should comprise of principal and the representatives of teachers, students, parents, school foundations, local governments, and community. The community representatives should consist of: (1) public figures, (2) educational experts; (3) industries or businesses; (4) professional organization of teachers; representatives of alumni; and (5) representatives of students. Apart from electing and/or nominating a maxi mum of three representatives only from teachers, school foundations, and Advisory Body for the Village Governance (Badan Pertimbangan Desa/BPD), there is no limitation of the total number elected from the representatives of the community members. Opinion on How SBM Creates Higher Participation of School Stakeholders An effort was then made to seek the nature of participation of school stakeholders in school decision-makings as perceived by the school stakeholders. Table 4 SBM and higher participation in school Valid Item Frequency Valid Percent Agree Strongly Agree 196 122 61.6 38.4 Total 318 100.0 Table 4 shows that all respondents (100%) stated either agree (62%) or strongly agree (38%) with the statement: SBM implementation has resulted in increased participation if all stakeholders in school. The result indicates how SBM policy in schools has crea

Supply Demand And The Market For Drugs Economics Essay

Supply Demand And The Market For Drugs Economics Essay Supply-side initiatives are actions meant to cut or reduce the supply by preventing drugs from entering the country. A supply reduction, unless it totally eliminates the flow of drugs into the market, works by raising price so that consumption is cut. A decrease in supply, without a change in demand, will result in a new market equilibrium where the market price is higher , but the quantity of drugs bought and sold is lower. However, the critical factor that determines the magnitude of the changes in price and quantity is the elasticity of demand. Two concerns have emerged with regard to drug supply restriction in the context of an price-inelastic demand. First, it has been observed that lower-income addicts who cannot substitute away from the drug after the price increase tend to resort to minor crimes to support their habit. Second, addicts who have to reduce purchases tend to adopt the faster, but riskier, route of inducing euphoria by injecting the drug. A policy-maker must be aware of these potential consequences. Clearly, therefore, if both supply-side and demand-side initiatives are costless, well conceived demand reduction efforts (i.e., schemes to prevent drug abuse by the young through prevention, education, rehabilitation of existing drug users) promise an unambiguously positive outcome relative to effective supply restrictions where there may be an offsetting expenditure effect arising out of the price increase (i.e, when the demand for drugs is inelastic, 0 > ÃŽÂ µ > -1, D2: , or perfectly elastic, ÃŽÂ µ=0, D1: y=1000). As shown in panel (a) in Figure 1, a vertical demand curve is perfectly inelastic at every price. If the price goes up, the quantity demanded is unchanged (), so the elasticity of demand must be zero: ( A demand curve is vertical for essential goods goods that people feel they must have and will pay anything to get. In our case (i.e., drug addicts), the demand curve for drugs could be vertical at a days dose, Q*=1000. More realistically, an individual drug addict may have a demand curve (panel (b), Figure 1) that is perfectly inelastic only at prices below p*, the maximum price he can afford to pay. Because he cannot afford to pay more than p*, he buys nothing at higher prices. As a result, his demand curve is perfectly elastic up to y* doses at a price of p*. In Figure 2, the demand for drugs is shown by the downward-sloping demand curve (D2) to reflect the negative relationship between price and the quantity demanded. It has been drawn with a steep slope because it is commonly held that addiction suggests price inelasticity in the demand for drugs, If true, it implies that an increase in price will be accompanied by a less-than-proportionate decrease in the quantity demanded. The supply curve (S), on the other hand, mirrors the behaviour of drug suppliers. It is drawn with a positive slope since higher prices will attract larger quantities from suppliers and vice versa. Moreover, the value of the elasticity coefficient (È  >1) suggests that the supply is price elastic; small increases in the price of drugs are thought to draw a more-than proportionate increase in the quantity supplied. As shown in both Figure 1 (panel a) and Figure 2, the initial equilibrium is represented by point e, where price is established at p* and the quantity transacted is y*. For a supply reduction shown by S, the demand reduction must be at least as large as that represented by D2 and D1 in order for price to remain at its original level of p*. This is to ensure that the quantity transacted falls (to y*) without any increase in price. If supply reduction keeps the price high enough (at p*) and long enough to prevent a new generation from falling victim to the habit, demand may fall in the long run and succeed in lowering consumption and drug-related harms. Moreover, the twin benefits of a lower price and lower quantity transacted will only be obtained if demand reduction exceeds supply reduction, as illustrated by point f. Even so, the continued presence of drug sales and use, although at a lower scale, suggests that a drug-free society has not been achieved. However, the evidence everywh ere suggests that this goal remains a dream (Wood et al. 2009). In sum, the net benefit from attempting a pure supply reduction of drugs remains ambiguous if demand is price-inelastic (in our case, D1: y=1000 and D2: ). Thus, by launching simultaneous initiatives on both the supply and demand sides might guarantee an unambiguously positive net result, that is reduce the consumption of drugs. G2: A reduction in the drug-induced criminality à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Pure Demand-side initiative Demand-side initiatives attempt to reduce the demand for drugs at all prevailing prices or, in purely graphically terms, shift the entire demand curve to the left of its original position. Schemes to prevent drug abuse by the young through prevention, education, rehabilitation of existing drug users, minimisation of relapses among rehabilitated users and controlled and supervised substitution therapy, meant to deprive users away from harmful drugs, constitute some of the commonly used demand reducing measures. As depicted in both Figure 3 and Figure 4 above, starting from the initial equilibrium (e), I assume supply remains unchanged. A successful demand reduction will shift the demand curve leftwards (D2), causing it to intersect with the given supply curve at a lower price (p*). The new lower demand curve, D2, intersects with the original supply curve (S), resulting in a lower price (p*) and a lower quantity bought and sold (y*). The total expenditure on drugs is reduced as well, providing less incentives for drug-induced criminality or drug substitutions. The elasticity of supply now determines the relative magnitude of the movement in price and quantity. The more elastic (inelastic) the supply, the smaller (larger) the decline in price and the larger (smaller) the decline in consumption (i.e, drug-induced criminality) induced by a given demand reduction. Nevertheless, both variables move in the same direction. G3: A reduction of the emergence of organized crime connected with the (illegal) sale of drugs à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Demand-side and/or Supply-side initiatives In the case of an inelastic demand and a elastic supply, the options for achieving a drug-free society are illustrated in Figure 5 above. Point e, as before, represents the equilibrium price and quantity before the anti-drug campaign. A purely demand-reduction effort to reduce drug trade (and consumption) to zero requires a big reduction in demand in order to shift the demand leftward to a point like f, where the lower demand curve (D2) intersects with the existing supply curve (S) and yields a street price (p*) that is so low that it is no longer profitable to supply drugs at all. In other words, the drug trade is wiped out due to insufficient demand. Alternatively, a purely supply reduction initiative to eradicate both the drug trade and consumption requires a substantial supply shift leftwards to a point like g, which yields a price so high (p*) as to make the drugs beyond the reach of buyers. Finally, a simultaneous shift leftward of both the demand and supply curves (arising from very effective supply and demand reduction initiatives) could, theoretically, see the reduction of the drug trade and consumption (and respectively a reduction of the emergence of organized crime connected with the (illegal) sale of drugs) at a price level that lies between the two extreme limits of p* and p*. Such a situation is shown by point h, where the highest price offered by the drug user (p*) is just below the threshold price (p*) considered profitable by the supplier. Moreover, the three options from above could be applied as well in the case of a perfectly inelastic demand in order to reduce the drug trade (and consumption) and respectively, to reduce the emergence of organized crime connected with the illegal sale of drugs. However, the drug-free society cannot be achieved (Figure 6). To summarise, price elasticities of demand and supply play a key role in determining the magnitudes of change in price and quantity induced by supply-side and demand-side initiatives. As noted, a pure supply reduction lowers consumption but increases price and, unless demand is very price-elastic, the reduction in consumption will be small but the total expenditure on drugs will increase considerably. On the other hand, a pure demand reduction lowers both price and quantity, with supply elasticity determining the relative size of the decline in both variables (additionally, consumption and expenditures on consumption will also be lower relative to the original level). In addition, whether an extreme objective of taking both demand-side and supply side initiatives is worth pursuing will depend upon how much it costs society to do so. If large shifts in demand and supply can be achieved at relatively low cost, a drug-free society is indeed a noble goal. b) The interpretations given to G1, G2 and G3 above looked at supply and demand shifts, ignoring costs. In deciding on an optimal policy, defined as one that maximises social welfare, costs become very important and must be weighed against the expected benefits. To be more precise, social costs must be weighed against the social benefits expected from a chosen policy option. P1: Increased punishment and/or increased probability of getting caught for drug-pushers To the extent that drug consumption transmits a negative externality, the social marginal benefit (SMB) from drug use must lie below the private marginal benefit (PMB), as reflected by market demand curve (D2, and D1 respectively) in Figure 7 and Figure 8 below. Assuming no externalities on the supply side, the market supply curve (S) reflects the cost of producing and distributing drugs. In a market without restrictions on drug supply or demand, the level of drug consumption (y*) will exceed the socially optimum level (y*). Enforcement on the supply side (i.e., increased punishment and/or increased probability of getting caught for drug-pushers) will reduce the market supply (shift the curve leftwards to SE), raise the price to p* and reduce drug consumption to the socially optimal level of y*. The after-enforcement supply curve will now incorporate the additional costs incurred by illegal suppliers to avoid detection and punishment (area abcd in Figure 7 and Figure 8). If demand is inelastic (D2 in Figure 7), the reduction in drug consumption will be small and the gain in social welfare from avoiding the negative externality associated with drug use will also be small. This gain is shown by the shaded area marked def (Figure 7). It is clear that these additional costs (area abcd) exceed the additional gain from reducing consumption (area def). However, by reducing consumption to y* via supply enforcement, society avoids the net loss shown by the def area. If demand is perfectly inelastic (D1 in Figure 8), despite the reduced consumption induced by the higher price (from p* to p*; since an individual drug addict cannot afford to pay more than p*, he buys nothing at higher prices, p*) due to a supply enforcement, total expenditure on consuming drugs will increase (area abce). This increased spending by persistent users translates directly into higher revenues for drug suppliers who remain in business. Hence, if the demand is inelastic (D2), or perfectly inelastic (D1), the total spending on drug consumption and the total resources committed to supplying drugs will increase. Thus, supply reduction under these circumstances has the unintended effect of drawing more of societys resources into an activity (illegal sale of drugs) that is being discouraged. Moreover, the impact of supply enforcement is also influenced by the price elasticity of supply; in general, the lower (higher) the supply elasticity, the smaller (larger) the effect of a given increase in enforcement in raising price and lowering consumption. Thus, the lower (higher) the price elasticity of supply, the greater (smaller) the enforcement costs and the likelihood of reducing the net social gain. In sum, if the demand for drugs is inelastic (D2) or perfectly inelastic (D1), supply enforcement may not be an efficient method of achieving the optimum level of consumption. This is because the cost of additional resources committed by the society (i.e., the additional expenditures by drug dealers plus the costs of supply enforcement) towards achieving this end will far exceed the benefits to the society. P2: Legalize the sale of drugs The effect of a supply restriction can be reproduced with a clear improvement in welfare by legalizing drug production and imposing an excise tax to reduce consumption to the optimal level. This is illustrated in both Figure 9 and Figure 10 below. In the case of inelastic demand, (D2 in Figure 9), assuming drug supply is legalized, the pre-intervention price and consumption are shown, as before, by p* and y*, respectively. Consumption can be reduced to the socially optimal level, y*, by imposing an excise tax equal to cd per unit of output. This raises the cost of production and the after-tax supply curve is indicated by ST . The market price of drugs increases to p*, consumption falls to y* and, as in the case of supply enforcement, net social losses (equivalent to def) are avoided. However, in contrast to supply enforcement, the tax extracts resources from the drug industry equal to the value of abcd. The effects of this reduction in resources are borne by both consumers and producers: the former, via a higher price and lower consumption rate, and the latter, by way of lower price and output. The resources are transferred to the government and will (hopefully) fund activities with a higher net social value. Of course, the suppliers and consumers do not necessarily bear the tax burden equally. The more inelastic the demand, the greater is the share of tax borne by the consumers. Similarly, the more inelastic the supply, the greater is the tax share borne by the suppliers. This point is better appreciated by looking at the equivalent estimate of the revenue collected, shown by the area marked p*cdp*. While the tax raises the consumer price from p* to p*, it lowers the unit price received by suppliers from p* to p*. Thus, in this example of inelastic demand, consumers pay a bigger share of the tax (area p*cdp*), relative to suppliers (area p*gdp*). In case of perfectly inelastic demand (D1 in Figure 10), Consumption can be reduced to the socially optimal level, y*, by imposing an excise tax equal to ce per unit of output. This raises the cost of production and the after-tax supply curve is indicated by ST . The market price of drugs increases to p* and consumption falls to y*. However, in contrast to supply enforcement, the tax extracts resources from the drug industry equal to the value of abce. The effects of this reduction in resources are borne by both consumers and producers: the former, via a higher price and lower consumption rate, and the latter, by way of lower price and output. Of course, the suppliers and consumers do not necessarily bear the tax burden equally. This point is better appreciated by looking at the equivalent estimate of the revenue collected, shown by the area marked p*cep*. While the tax raises the consumer price from p* to p*, it maintains the unit price received by suppliers at p*. Thus, in this exa mple of inelastic demand, consumers pay a bigger share of the tax (area p*cdp*), relative to suppliers (area dce). The net increase in welfare under the legalise-and-tax approach is assured because the tax, in effect, internalises the negative externality associated with drug consumption. Furthermore, apart from generating tax revenue, the resources necessary to discourage illegal production and control tax avoiders will be far smaller than the enforcement costs under a regime where all production is illegal. The authorities only have to raise the cost of illegal production above the cost of legal production to discourage the former. Despite the theoretical elegance of this approach, governments hesitate to adopt it because it is seen as morally wrong to legalise drug use, even if the longer-term objective is to restrain consumption more effectively. P3: Distribute drugs for free If the government were to distribute the drugs free (p*=0), the quantity would be y*=1000 when demand is perfectly inelastic (D1), and y*=2000 when the demand is relatively inelastic (D2). As depicted in both Figure 11 and Figure 12 below, starting from the initial equilibrium (e), I assume supply remains unchanged. In Figure 12, a successful demand reduction would be possible only in the case of perfectly inelastic demand curve, (from D1 to D1), causing it to intersect with the given supply curve at a lower price (p*). The new lower demand curve, D2, intersects with the original supply curve (S), resulting in a lower price (p*) and a lower quantity bought and sold (y*). The total expenditure on drugs is reduced as well, providing less incentives for drug-induced criminality or drug substitutions. However, the drug trade (and consumption) could not be reduced to 0. Furthermore, in Figure 11, in the case of inelastic demand (D2), the consumption is more likely to increase than to decrease. The implementation of a policy such as distributing drugs for free, will increase the quantity from y* (equilibrium quantity) to y*=2000 and reduce price from p* (equilibrium price) to p*=0. P4: Decrease the demand for drugs As discussed earlier in the paper regarding policy P1, the social marginal benefit (SMB) from drug use must lie below the private marginal benefit (PMB), as reflected by market demand curve (D2, and D1 respectively) in Figure 13 and Figure 14 above. Assuming no externalities on the supply side, the market supply curve (S) reflects the cost of producing and distributing drugs. In a market without restrictions on drug supply or demand, the level of drug consumption (y*) will exceed the socially optimum level (y*). In both Figure 12 (and Figure 13), persuasion efforts to reduce the demand for drugs are unaffected by the price elasticity of demand. Successful persuasion will result in the original demand curve, D2 (and D1) declining to D0. This will raise the overall social welfare, provided the costs of such efforts are not excessively large and if persuasion itself does not generate a large negative social value. As to sum up, the analysis of the optimal policy-instruments to be implemented on the market for drugs supports the conclusions of the earlier interpretations (G1 to G3): when the impact of a policy on welfare is considered explicitly, demand reduction delivers a clear improvement in outcome whereas supply reduction requires special conditions to do so. c) Goals G1: Reduction in the consumption of drugs G2: A reduction in the drug-induced criminality G3: A reduction of the emergence of organized crime connected with the (illegal) sale of drugs Policy-instruments P1: Increased punishment and/or increased probability of getting caught for drug-pushers D1, S D2, S D1, S D2, S D1, S D2, S By launching simultaneous initiatives on both the supply and demand sides might guarantee an unambiguously positive net result, that is reduce the consumption of drugs. If the demand for drugs is inelastic or perfectly inelastic, supply enforcement may not be an efficient method of achieving the optimum level of consumption. Well conceived demand reduction efforts promise an unambiguously positive outcome (i.e., less incentives for drug-induced criminality) relative to effective supply restrictions where there may be an offsetting expenditure effect arising out of the price increase. A simultaneous shift leftward of both the demand and supply curves (arising from very effective supply and demand reduction initiatives) could, theoretically, see a reduction of both the drug trade and the organized crime related with the (illegal) sale of drugs). However, a drug-free society cannot be achieved. A simultaneous shift leftward of both the demand and supply curves (arising from very effective supply and demand reduction initiatives) could, theoretically, eradicate the drug trade, and respectively , the organized crime connected with the (illegal) sale of drugs), thus achieving a drug-free society. Goals G1: Reduction in the consumption of drugs G2: A reduction in the drug-induced criminality G3: A reduction of the emergence of organized crime connected with the (illegal) sale of drugs Policy-instrument P2: Legalize the sale of drugs D1, S D2, S D1, S D2, S D1, S D2, S Governments hesitate to adopt this policy because it is seen as morally wrong to legalise drug use, even if the longer-term objective is to restrain consumption more effectively. To the extent that legalizing drugs would make them cheaper, it would create many new addicts and the incidence of drug-induced crime would increase. Thus, legalizing drugs not only does not decrease criminal behaviour; almost certainly, it would spur its increase. If there are any regulations or taxes of (for example, an excise tax)placed upon the legalized drugs, the emergence of organized crime, most certainly, will not be reduced. Governments hesitate to adopt this policy because it is seen as morally wrong to legalise drug use, even if the longer-term objective is to restrain consumption more effectively. Goals G1: Reduction in the consumption of drugs G2: A reduction in the drug-induced criminality G3: A reduction of the emergence of organized crime connected with the (illegal) sale of drugs Policy-instruments P3: Distribute drugs for free D1, S D2, S D1, S D2, S D1, S D2, S A successful demand reduction would be possible only in the case of perfectly inelastic demand curve, causing the new lower demand curve to intersect with the given supply curve at a lower price and a lower quantity bought and sold. Thus, the consumption is expected to decrease. In the case of inelastic demand, the consumption is more likely to increase than to decrease. A successful demand reduction would be possible only in the case of perfectly inelastic demand curve, causing the new lower demand curve to intersect with the given supply curve at a lower price and a lower quantity bought and sold. Thus, the total expenditure on drugs is reduced as well, providing less incentives for drug-induced criminality or drug substitutions. If one sees drug-induced criminality as criminality under the influence of drugs, then free distribution would increase drug-related criminality. Since drugs are distributed for free (p=0), the emergence of organized crime connected with the illegal sale of drugs is expected to be eradicated. Goals G1: Reduction in the consumption of drugs G2: A reduction in the drug-induced criminality G3: A reduction of the emergence of organized crime connected with the (illegal) sale of drugs Policy-instruments P4: Decrease the demand for drugs D1, S D2, S D1, S D2, S D1, S D2, S Persuasion efforts to reduce the demand for drugs are unaffected by the price elasticity of demand. Successful persuasion will result in the original demand curve to decline. Thus, the consumption of drugs is reduced. However, the drug consumption cannot be reduced to 0. Persuasion efforts to reduce the demand for drugs are unaffected by the price elasticity of demand. Successful persuasion will result in the original demand curve to decline causing a reduction in drug-induced criminality Persuasion efforts to reduce the demand for drugs are unaffected by the price elasticity of demand. Successful persuasion will result in the original demand curve to decline, causing a lower demand curve that intersects with the existing supply curve and yields a street price that is so low that it is no longer profitable to supply drugs. In other words, the organized crime related to the illegal sale of drugs is reduced (if not wiped out) due to insufficient demand.

Recommendation For Recycling Water In Florida Essays -- Recycling Water

Recommendation For Recycling Water in Florida Contents Abstract................................................2 Executive Summary.......................................3 Introduction............................................4 Methods.................................................4 Results.................................................5 Basic background information on water reuse in Florid...5 Reclaiming Waste Water in Florida Uses for reclaimed or reused water......................7 Conclusions.............................................7 Recommendations.........................................7 References..............................................7 Abstract "Recommendation for Recycling Water in a Florida Pilot Plant" The water shortage problem has affected all of us in one way or another. Either through the mandatory restrictions or the increased price of water, or even the ever increasing occurrence of sinkholes, the evidence of a water shortage is everywhere. Since we need water to survive, and there are no alternatives to support life on this planet, we must find a way to keep up with our ever increasing water demand. This report presents the water shortage problem that is occurring in Florida. This report will familiarize you with the problem and explain the other uses currently being employed in Florida. This report also explains the procedure, as well as a recommendation including the site and costs involved, along with a short background on the proposed procedure. I recommend that the recycled project be funded and allow the pilot plant to meet the ever increasing demand for water in Florida. Executive Summary The water shortage problem effects us all in one way or another. Either through the mandatory restrictions or the increased price of water, or even the ever increasing occurrence of sinkholes, the evidence of a water shortage is everywhere. Since we need water to survive, and there are no alternatives to support life on this planet, we must find a way to keep up with our expanding water demand. I feel that the only viable option is to recycle the water we are using. By recycling the water, we will be able to drop ... ...und choice therefore is to reuse the water readily available to us. We have the technology accessible to use to make this a viable option and I feel we should pursue this option. This would almost completely alleviate any water shortage we have, since all the water we use would be recycled back into drinking water, thus relieving the demand to pump more and more water from an already over used aquifer. Recommendation I recommend that the funds be made available for the pilot plant to be put into effect, and allow us to take the next step in water reuse in Florida. The new plant will drastically reduce the amount of water now being pumped from the ground, thus reduce the sinkholes and alleviate the water shortage problem. I feel the small investment is more than worthwhile and will be recouped in a year's time. I would like to start this project and bring this new technology to light and begin a new generation of water treatment. References Young, Harley and David York (1996, November). "Reclaimed Water Reuse in Florida and the South Gulf Coast." Florida Water Resource Journal, pp. 32-35.

The Tall-Tale Heart Essay -- Literary Analysis, Allen Poe, Figurative

It is one’ o clock in the morning; you are exhausted and all you wish to do is sleep. Finally, when you are able to relax, close your eyes and begin to nod off, you hear a loud creak in the floor and you suddenly wake up to bad thoughts of what this mysterious noise is. In â€Å"The Tall-Tale Heart† by Edgar Allen Poe, various techniques are used to detail an old man’s uneasiness to the slightest of sounds at night as the narrator retells his murder of the old man. Since anyone in such situation would act similarly to the old man, his fear and anxiety is no surprise to the audience; however, with Poe’s use of figurative language, selection of details and diction the old man’s nervousness is aptly portrayed and characterized. The use of figurative language serves to compare what the narrator sees and hears to something more relatable for the reader. Poe uses several examples of similes and personifications, but only a few correlate to the well-being of the old man. As the narrator waits for the right moment to kill the old man, he notices the sound of the beating heart of the old man. Poe writes â€Å"†¦there came to my ears a low, dull, quick sound, such as a watch makes when enveloped in cotton,† to further explain in detail exactly what the narrator heard (line 50-1). The comparison between the beating heart and the muffled clock serves as an exaggeration of a racing heart during time of fear and over excitement. The swiftly beating heart also contributes to the trepidation that continues to become greater and greater in the old man, as demonstrated in Poe’s personification of â€Å"fears had been ever since growing upon him† (line 21-2). Another added factor to the old man’s fear is that the old man had been visited by Death, who... ....† The word â€Å"enveloped,† taken from the Old French word voloper meaning to wrap up, is defined as concealing something, it can be inferred that Death will take the life of the old man. But using â€Å"enveloped† as supposed to its synonym â€Å"surround† gives the action a scary feel to it. The use of diction is most important when defining the old man because without the right words to describe the situation, all meaning and purpose of the story is lost. This spine-chilling and sinister plot is only effective if Poe uses the appropriate and proper literary elements, which he has done. Poe is able to impact the reader and future readers to possibly think twice about mysterious and unusual noises heard in the night. Hopefully in the future, if ever you hear an eccentric noise when you sleep, you will remember the fate of the old man, and be wiser than he was.

The Position of Women in Our Society

Women are the inherent part of our society and cannot be neglected due to their less power and authority. They are created as a companion for men and men have to make her walk with them in the course of life. As Pakistan is an Islamic state so Pakistani female’s role and behaviors are defined by Islamic laws and as such are given divine sanction. She plays roles as a mother, a sister, a daughter, a wife. They play their roles with great responsibilities in upbringing of a healthy solid society, but she is in our so called modern world, still living in chains. The basic unit of society is a woman. As woman makes a family, family makes a home and homes make a society. So we should never think that a society would come into existence without the contribution of women. We all know that without education, no development is possible. Here we have forgotten that the very first and best school of a child is its mother’s lap. A good healthy society doesn’t automatically emerge on its own and stands firm but it needs to be emerged and for its emergence women play a pivotal role. From behavioral to health education women have their hands in. t’s a woman who teaches how to behave, how to speak and how to deal with different classes of people. These all are the basic fundamentals of a good society and women are the main contributors in building up a strong society. Arabia, the origin of Islam, in pre-Islamic ages was wrapped all over by blanket of evil deeds, wicked thoughts and immorality. Women were the most effected during that time. They were treated like animals. They were only used as sex toys and they were worse than slaves. The new born baby girls were buried alive as they thought girls were a curse for the family and society. But! They didn’t know that Allah’s blessings are upon that home and parents that have daughters. With the advent of Islam, the women got the respect and status in the society that she ever deserved. It the woman who is a mother and Islam has taught us that â€Å"paradise lies under the feet of mother†. From this we can judge women’s respect and importance in our life and society. The western countries have tremendously developed in all fields of life. Their education, their health departments, the departments of information technology are the in the highest rankings. In western countries men and women are working shoulder to shoulder in the same pace and both are contributing and playing their parts equally in the developmental processes. They are given basic education as well as fundamental and higher education without any restrictions from the society. That is why the West is that much developed. As they are educating and encouraging both the sexes equally and discriminating none. Like this there is competition and where there is competition there is invention and invention leads to massive developments. Pakistan is an Islamic country and exists and functions in the context of its unique set of historical, social, economic and political circumstances. Women within Islamic boundaries can take part in all activities weather they belong to financial, national, international, social or domestic affairs. Women population of our country is greater than that of men population. If such a big portion of population is kept behind then it’s difficult to progress with due speed and we will obviously lag behind the developed countries. Pakistan is an under developed country and most of its population is of the youth. It’s a golden chance for Pakistan to rightly utilize the youth’s energies. Women are more productive than men; if in Pakistan they are given the right platform they will smoothly carry the nation towards development. The role of Pakistani women in their families revolves around well-established conventions of male supremacy and female sub ordinance. Here the complete responsibility lies on the shoulders of the male to educate and encourage the females to step forward and to play their role in developmental processes. Women are not only for home-making and child-rearing but they must also be given chance to put their hands a little forward in building up of a good solid society. A good solid society is a good harbinger of development. In order for a society to be a pure society, both men and women should think, dress and behave in ways that allow pure thoughts and actions to dominate the way of life and create a social climate conducive to the achievement of the real goal of life.

Killer Joe and Gender Representations

Critical observations of unbalanced representations of gender In William Friedkin’s â€Å"Totally twisted deep-fried Texas redneck trailer park murder story† Killer Joe Freeman 1 British film theorist Laura Mulvey has spent her career using psychoanalysis to uncover pre-set molds and social expectations about gender and sexuality, to interpret classic Hollywood films. Mulvey has argued that there are three ways in which gender is represented within Hollywood cinema. First, she argues that women lack control and meaning, thus fueling their desire for the penis and power of a man.She also states that women exist as a silent opposition to the dominant man (a child-bearing subject merely in relation to). Last, this essay will argue that women are meant to carry no significance of their own but acting as merely a threatening obstacle for the male to â€Å"overcome† or re-work (Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema, 1975). Laura Mulvey and her views on female representa tions and gender roles within Hollywood films still prevail with fundamental relevance in modern Hollywood cinema.This essay will underline the truths of Mulvey’s observations by using William Friedkin’s violently obscene farce Killer Joe (2011) to argue that Mulvey’s article, no matter how outdated, can still be used to address prominent and modern examples of unbalanced sexual representations within Hollywood cinema. On the surface it may seem very obvious that the men have the power in this film due to how the women are represented and treated.But, as Killer Joe unfolds the question is whether it is the women with the power, or just an obvious desire for power fueled by their lack of meaning, control, and a phallus, as Mulvey has mentioned in previous years. The first man we see in the film is young and weak, wet, vulnerable, locked out of the trailer and getting violent. He is verbally demeaning towards his younger sister Dottie as if it were her fault that he is locked out, and her purpose to wake up and let him in.Dottie Smith is the first female we see, and becomes a central subject for the ruthless male – she Freeman 2 lacks authority, lacks independence, and her fetal position is an obvious symbol for needing nurturing from a stronger being. Dottie is made to appear lonesome, without companionship or passion. As she lies there, Friedkin intends to focus on Dottie’s innocent aspects, such as her belongings: dollhouses, stuffed animals, pink curtains, teen-pop heartthrobs taped to the walls, although the young woman in the bed appears to be too old for such childish decor.The second woman we see is placed directly in front of the camera by her unruly crotch. Her face appears after we become acquainted with her lower half, with makeup smeared down her cheekbones and her nipples exposed from under a thin sweat-stained shirt. The first two women in this film are polar opposites (one a fragile blonde virgin who sleeps with stuffed animals, and Sharla, an older brunette women a little too comfortable with her sexuality).This difference expresses to us that this story will focus hugely upon the different aspects of woman as a representation, and highlight that Laura Mulvey’s views on women are still incredibly relevant throughout Friedkin’s film. Mulvey also mentions that the act of looking is a source of pleasure for the male scotophil. The explicit placement of the camera exhibits these women and their features to the audience as sexual spectacles while it solicits our attention, shapes our opinions about women to make â€Å"erotic lookers† out of us, and creates an unevenly distributed â€Å"power to look† (Mulvey, 1975).The young male, Chris Smith, is hardly phased by his step mothers exposed vagina in his face because it is insinuated that he has either seen it before, seen many others like it before, or that she is so disgusting to him that her crotch means nothing to him sexually or even in regards as a human being. Chris is allowed to expose himself while urinating while Sharla yells for him to close the door. Chris’ penis is allowed to be exposed to women as a sign of power Freeman 3 and manipulation, while a woman’s exposed vagina is a sign of weakness, objectiveness, and sleaziness.After all of this, she grabs a beer from the fridge before putting any clothes on. She is an over sexualized woman, a sexual spectical, while also appearing to be very masculine in her actions, which is to assume that certain actions and characteristics of both male and female are set in stone to shape our expectations of gender in Hollywood cinema. The beer before pants, the over exposure of her body, and the way Sharla speaks to her step-son are all actions that a man might follow through with, and she does this in a way that expresses her desire for authority, for a penis like the men she obviously idolizes.Sharla and Chris physically fight as if they were both men – she desperately wants to fit into their world, but she is cast away like an unusable piece of meat once her duty to grab them beers has been filled. At thirteen minutes we see Dottie practicing Kung-Fu to a Jet Li movie on the television, which is an example of her wishing she were stronger, wishing she had the ability and the â€Å"balls† to fight against evil when in reality she is more like a play-thing for her Father, Ansel Smith, Chris and for Joe Cooper.Women lack control, yet they desire it, desire the power of the dominant male gender, and Killer Joe establishes the female characters in the same way that Laura Mulvey had expressed this view in 1975 as being an underlying representation of women throughout Hollywood cinema. Mulvey also argues that women exist as a mere childbearing relation to the male, as a silent opposition that is not a gender of it’s own, but a male-like figure lacking in its significant source of superiority: the phallus.Essentially, social constructions would argue that women are born more naturally gentle and nurturing because of their ability to breed, while men are naturally born with more acceptable aggression, enabling them to Freeman 4 â€Å"protect† their gentle mate (Media and Society 5th ed. , 350-351). Thirty-four seconds into the film we have heard a zippo lighter, purposeful footsteps, and a shotgun cocked and blast before we are shown anything, visually. From those sounds alone, the film carries a grunge-country, plaid-wearing, sweaty-man undertone that never ceases to leave the screen.An angry storm, angry pit-bull and a sloppy trailer park establish the setting of the film, forewarning us that this is a â€Å"mans† film, and is anything but clean. Ansel and Chris, father and son, are talking about Dottie’s virginity as if she has not lived out her purpose to society yet until she finally gives it up. The inheritance of Dottie’s mother Adele went t o her scumbag boyfriend Rex before her daughter, (whom we find out she tired to kill as a baby). This expresses that women will always fall to the feet of the male superior, as Mulvey has mentioned.Ansel and Sharla talk about Dottie sleeping with cowboy-in-black Joe Cooper for the first time as if satisfying him sexually will benefit the family. They force her to get a dress, look pretty, because â€Å"If she don’t know what’s expected of her, she might disappoint him! † (Sharla, Killer Joe). Mulvey’s idea that women are merely objects for childbearing is hugely represented when Dottie finally stands up for herself at the end of Killer Joe, kills her family in an act that could only come from the confidence of carrying a child and a loaded phallus.Sharla loses all invisible phallic confidence that she once had, when Joe kicks the shit out of her. Sharla never wanted kids – she was never a woman with the maternal instinct, therefore she carried no s ignificance or necessary female attributes that satisfied the man. Sharla tries to overcome the obligations of her gender by cheating on her husband with a younger man, but the photo proof of their sex life backfires on her when Joe uses her bold promiscuity against her as if it were her duty as a woman to be gentle, easily Freeman 5 anipulated, and loyal – only the men are allowed variety. Like this essay has stated, Friedkin’s Killer Joe is an obvious expression of Laura Mulvey views on the male-authoritative being objective towards women and their abilities as human beings outside of their ability to reproduce. Which brings this essay to the third statement, which emphasizes that women are meant to carry no significance of their own as a lone-standing gender, but as Laura Mulvey indicates, act as a threatening obstacle for the male to â€Å"overcome† or re-work into something acceptable, and useable.Regine-Mihal Friedman, author of educational article Invisib le Metamorphosis (2012), proves in her modern film analysis that the on-screen representation of sexual violence against women has always been a customary theme of cinematic narration, not only in Hollywood as Mulvey mentions, but within international cinema as well. Ansel Smith of Killer Joe is constantly in the â€Å"dog-house† because of Sharla. She wears the pants, carries the symbolic penis in the relationship and she likes it that way. It is her relationship with Corvette Rex that makes her feel dominated, and she appreciates both aspects of her relationships.When Sharla is with Ansel she can have the power and the penis, and while she is with Rex she is able to figuratively and literally lay back and be taken and overcome by the penis. Chris comes to live with Ansel and Sharla because of his relationship with his mother, Adele, and her empowerment over him, causing the reoccurring question throughout the film â€Å"did you hit her, again? † (Ansel, Sharla, Kille r Joe). For some reason, Chris and Ansel feel entitled to a cut of what Dottie is inherited, again, taking the power away from the phallus-longing female.Chris feels like he is getting back at his mother for everything she did to him and his sister Dottie. Instead of taking the blame for his own mistakes, every one of Freeman 6 his problems falls on Adele, and she must die because of it: active male, female problem solved. Dottie appears nude in a dream that Chris has about her where she slips her robe off to reveal her naked body, but instead of giving him sexual favors, she holds her fists up and stands in a fighter position as if to say â€Å"I am woman, hear me roar! He wakes up terrified, either because of his incestuous dream, or because a supposedly passive female is attempting to overpower his role as the active male – could be both. Again, this proves that a male audience needs to look voyeuristically to maintain power, anonymity, creating an erotic mystery to havin g seen without being seen (Mulvey, 1975). When Dottie officially becomes Joe’s retainer for the lack of payment by the Smith family, she is officially in Joe’s hands, whatever he says goes, whatever he needs and craves (including her virginity) he claims, and takes.Her body is his to construct, his to mold into something acceptable, something that fits into his life, and fits over his dominance, his penis, forever like a piece of clay. Dottie is easily pressured into sleeping with him and becomes â€Å"comfortable† in the black dress when Joe offers her flowers and a â€Å"heartfelt† story about his youth. She is no longer the feisty Jet Li wannabe that Joe once saw her as; Dottie has allowed Joe to â€Å"fix† her, to impregnate her, and to make her existence purposeful.Sharla, the overly confident manipulative whore who believes that she can do, say, get away with anything is put in her place when she makes Joe Cooper ejaculate in his pants while sucking on a KFC chicken wing held to his crotch. To overpower the women you must make her bow down to you, suck you off (suggestively), while waving a piece of chicken (your dominance) in her face. The film concludes with Clarence Carter’s Strokin’, a song that could tell you a lot about Laura Mulvey’s views on themesFreeman 7 of sexually dominated women throughout Hollywood cinema as a whole, and precisely, Freidkin’s Killer Joe. Killer Joe has taught us many things: If the women want the penis so bad, we should give it to them, that a pregnant women is a powerful women but only if she is literally holding a big deadly penis in her hands (cocked and ready to blow bullets at you), and that if you take that penis away, she is nothing but an annoying piece of KFC being waved in your face, begging for significance.Film theorist Laura Mulvey’s three views regarding a woman’s need for the male phallus, their obligation to reproduce, and that wom en are never exceptional creatures until the man makes them so, has been proven to appear in both classic and modern Hollywood cinema. William Friedkin’s obscene murder-story Killer Joe is an undeniable example of how Laura Mulvey’s ideas are still very apparent when observing unbalanced representations of gender throughout Hollywood Cinema. Freeman 8 Works CitedKiller Joe. Dir. William Friedkin. Perf. Matthew McConaughey. Voltage Pictures, 2011. Film. Mulvey, Laura. Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema. Screen (Society for Education in Film and Television), 16:3 (Autumn 1975): 6-18. O’Shaughnessy, M. , & Stadler. (2012). Media and Society Fifth Edition. Melbourne: Oxford University Press. (Original work published 1999) Friedman, R. -M. (2012). Invisible Metamorphoses, Studies in Documentary Film, 6:3, pp. 273–290, doi: 10. 1386/sdf. 6. 3. 273_1